E102___TMA04___young_people_and_decision_making

Vanessa Antwi-Berchie H3669282

E102 – TMA 04

TMA 04 – Children, young people, political action and decision-making

Develop and provide an essay plan to provide a clear indication of the key points you will make in your Part 2 essay. Each point should be supported by key sources (with references) to illustrate your arguments.

Part 1: Essay plan (552 words)

(The number of paragraphs is given as an example. You may have a different number of paragraphs in your essay.)	Main points: In this row, state the main point of each paragraph.	Evidence/Examples In this row, describe the evidence or examples from module materials (Reader or online materials) that you will use to make the key point.	References Ensure all examples and evidence are referenced. In this row, give references, e.g. author, year. If you use a quote, include page number.
Overview of the essay	Essay will explain and evaluate the proposition that children and young people have the right and competence for decision-making and politics.		Reference any definitions or quotes used in Introduction. If not using these or other evidence, references may not be required.
Politics	How politics is defined locally and internationally and what legislations are in place for children.	Children have international rights to protection, provision and participation outlined by the UNCRC (United Nations on the Rights of the Child, 1989).	(UNCRC, 1989, as cited by Montgomery, 2020) (UNCRC, 1989, Article 12) (UNCRC, 1989, Article 13)
Cognitive development	Piaget’s theory of cognitive development describing children’s progress from the ‘concrete operational stage’ to the ‘formal operational stage’.	Example is shown when children were asked “If X s taller than Y, and Y is taller than Z, who is the tallest?” (Dillon, 2020, p.304).	Piaget (1929, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 303) (Dillion, 2020, pg. 304)

(The number of paragraphs is given as an example. You may have a different number of paragraphs in your essay.)	Main points: In this row, state the main point of each paragraph.	Evidence/Examples In this row, describe the evidence or examples from module materials (Reader or online materials) that you will use to make the key point.	References Ensure all examples and evidence are referenced. In this row, give references, e.g. author, year. If you use a quote, include page number.
Cognitive changes	The distinction between these stages is defined by children’s errors/accuracy and level of logical, sophisticated, complex deduction.	Physical brain changes lead to increasingly complex thinking	(Toga and Thompson, 2003, as cited by Dillion, 2020, pg. 306) (Foster et.al., 2008, cited in Dillon, 2020)
Criticisms of Piaget’s theory	Piaget studied his own children and others from high socioeconomic status. He also underestimated the ages of accomplishment and ignored the societies children grow up in.		(Donaldson, 1978, as cited in Dillion, 2020 pg. 306)
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development	Kohlberg considers discrete stages of moral thinking which continue into adolescence, with many adults never achieving the highest levels.	Lawrence Kohlberg (1981) developed a separate stage theory of morality, described as having a three-level sequence, with levels becoming increasing complex as they progress.	(Kholberg (1981, as cited in Dillion, 2020 pg. 307) (Gibbs, 2013, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 307)

(The number of paragraphs is given as an example. You may have a different number of paragraphs in your essay.)	Main points: In this row, state the main point of each paragraph.	Evidence/Examples In this row, describe the evidence or examples from module materials (Reader or online materials) that you will use to make the key point.	References Ensure all examples and evidence are referenced. In this row, give references, e.g. author, year. If you use a quote, include page number.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory	Kohlberg focuses his theories on concepts of justice, rather than freedom and/or equality. There is an overlap between the stages, which are not as discrete. Kohlberg demonstrates gender bias in how he worded the levels to favour males.	Gilligan developed Kohlberg’s theory to reflect and recognise the way males and females justify moral judgement.	(Carol Gilligan (1977, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 311) (Gilligan, 1977, and Jorgensen, 2006, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 311)
Social Development	Adolescents may construct their self- identity by forming different relationships explore different roles to fit their self-concepts.	Erik Erikson identified ‘psychosocial’ (the interaction of psychological and social) stages which create identity crises in adolescence.	Erikson (1968, cited in Dillon, 2020 pg. 312)
Conclusion	Children at all stages of life have some impact on decision making	Individuals go through a transformation during their childhood through to adolescence which affects the way they think, learn and reason.	References not usually required in Conclusion.

Part 2: Essay (1635 words)

During early 2019 school-aged children and young people across the UK went on strike to protest about lack of global political action on climate change. This drew both praise and condemnation, raising questions such as whether children and young people have the right to engage in political action and whether they can be deemed competent to contribute to political decision-making processes.

Drawing on the module Reader and online materials, write an essay to describe, explain and evaluate the proposition that children and young people have the right and the competence for political action and decision-making. You should ensure to draw on material from developmental psychology and child rights perspectives in answering your question.

Introduction

There have been strong traditions within local and national government policies of focusing on the rights and needs of all children. This TMA will identify what laws and legislation are in place for children and what rights they have when it comes to making decisions about their lives and evaluate the proposition that children and young people have the right and competence for decision-making and politics.

Politics

Politics can encompass local, national and global governance, but also the politics of power, resource allocation and decision-making in everyday settings. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (UNCRC; United Nations, 1989), is made up of 54 legally binding articles covering children’s rights to healthcare, education, nationality and legal representation. The rights set out in the UNCRC are grouped into 3 categories known as the 3 P’s: Their rights to provision – including rights to food, housing and education, their rights to protection against exploitation and abuse, and their rights to participation, where children can take part in decisions made on their behalf (UNCRC, 1989, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 18). According to the UNCRC (1989), children have the right to express their opinion freely and to have that opinion listened to in any matter or procedure affecting them (Article 12) and they have the right to freedom of expression including freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of the child’s choice (Article 13).

Cognitive development

Cognitive development is the term used to describe the emergence of children’s ability to think, reason an understand the world around them (Dillion, 2020).

Piaget (1929, as cited in Dillion, 2020), proposed a theory of development in discrete stages, capturing the changes in cognitive development from infancy through to adolescence. According to Piaget, between the ages of 11 and 16, children progress from the concrete operational stage to the formal operational stage. An example of the difference between the concrete operational state and the formal operational stage, is the ability to answer questions such as “If X is taller than Y, and Y is taller than Z, who is the tallest? This question tests the ability to think about things that are not in the direct experience of the individual. (Dillion, 2020, pg. 304). This type of reasoning is known as deduction, which is important for making long term decisions.

Cognitive changes in the formal operational stage enable more sophisticated thinking and often occur as a result of important physical changes within the brain. Changes include an increase in the number of neurons and the complexity of the neutral pathways that connect them, which in turn enables adolescent thinking to become increasingly complex (Toga and Thompson, 2003, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 306). One notable specific change is the continuous development of the prefrontal cortex, which is not fully developed until the early 20s, and is a crucial part of the development of cognitive skills during the adolescence years. It is the part of the brain that allows people to think, evaluate and make complex judgements (Foster et al., 2008, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 306).

Although Piaget’s stage theory of development is one is the best-known theories in developmental and educational psychology, he faced many criticisms. One criticism is that much of his writing is based on the study of his own children and others from high socio- economic groups. This means that the sample he based his theories on are unrepresentative of the general population and could have been bias towards his children. Further research suggests that Piaget underestimated the age at which some abilities could be demonstrated, assuming children would fail at tasks (Donaldson, 1978, as cited in Dillion, 2020) and that he ignored the impact social context in which children grow up. Donaldson places great emphasis on the fact that, given the right circumstances, incredibly young children are capable of non-egocentric, deductive-like reasoning. (Donaldson, 1978, pg. 156)

Reasoning based on moral judgement

Building on Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development, Lawrence Kholberg (1981, as

cited in Dillion, 2020), developed a separate stage theory of morality, described as having a three-level sequence, with levels becoming increasing complex as they progress. Both

Kholberg and Piaget agreed that the highest level of moral reasoning could only be achieved when and individual had simultaneously reached the highest levels of cognitive

development. However, unlike Piaget, Kholberg suggests that the development of moral

judgement extended beyond childhood and into adolescence (Gibbs, 2013, as cited in

Dillion, 2020, pg. 307). Reasoning at stage 1 is driven by obedience and punishment. At stage 2, rules are followed only to further the interests of the individual. In stage 3, individuals

express a desire to gain and maintain the approval of others in their society. By stage 4,

individuals conform to society’s rules and conventions because of their perceived

importance in maintaining society. At the post conventional stage, the individual makes

conscious effort define their own moral values that are separate from authority. By stage 5 individuals may disobey laws or promote change if they find them to be inconsistent with

their personal values. Individuals in stage 6, the highest level of Kohlberg’s moral framework, are described as being able to define what is right according to ethical principles that are

universal (Dillion, 2020, pg. 308).

Some criticisms Kohlberg attracted is that there is a heightened focus on justice to the

exclusion of other moral values such as freedom or equality, and that there is significant

overlap between the stages. One of Kohlberg’s main critics is Carol Gilligan (1977, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 311), who suggested the importance of gender bias in Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning and questioned how his theory presented for females. Kohlberg argued that females had a lower moral judgement rating to that of males, suggesting that males develop higher levels of moral reasoning than females. Gilligan argued against Kohlberg, suggesting females are not less mature than males, but rather that Kohlberg’s wording of the criteria for each level seemed to favour males. Gilligan has since developed Kohlberg’s theory to reflect and recognise difference in the way that males and females justify moral judgements and to recognise, and place equal value on, difference between sexes in their reasoning (Gilligan,

1977, and Jorgensen, 2006, as cited in Dillion, 2020, pg. 311).

Social Development

Adolescents engage in different types of social relationships and develop new constructions of their own self-identity by forming different relationships with parents, peers and other

social groups. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory (1968, as cited in Dillion, 2020 pg. 312)

proposed that adolescents typically experience an identity crisis during which they try to

establish what is unique and distinctive about themselves. In the western world, one key

change in an adolescent’s social world, is that they enjoy the shift from the resilience of

parents’ perspective to looking towards their peers for help (Pfeifer and Blakemore, 2021, as cited by Dillion, 2020, pg. 312) and are likely to be more autonomous in their choice of

friends.

Changes in the relationship between parents and adolescents is often presented as at odds, and one of the main reasons is that adolescents increasingly seek autonomy over their lives and the choices they make. Authoritative parents tend to hold high expectations and place limits on expected behaviour. In contrast, authoritarian parents have expectations of children following their rules with little reasoning as to why they should. According to Brown and Huang, (1995, as cited by Dillion, 2020, pg. 313) adolescents with authoritative parents were less likely to succumb to peer pressure an engage in risky behaviour and far more likely to engage in completing homework.

In this case, the concept of reasoning amongst adolescents and young people reasons well with Piaget’s (1989) formal operation stage, where children establish their agency and

autonomy within their reasoning.

Conclusion

This TMA has identified they key developmental stages in children and young people’s lives and there are many claims to support the proposition that children and young people have the right and the competence for political action and decision-making. Children and young people have international rights to protection, provision and participation which have been set out in the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child. They not only have the rights to protection and provision, but they also have rights to be consulted and included in decisions made about them and have their opinions listened to and taken into

consideration. However, children’s rights to participation have been particularly contested as

they represent a profound shift in relationship between children and adults, and challenge conceptualisations of children as unknowing, passive and needing adults to act in their best interest (Montgomery, 2020). The idea of children and young people ‘having agency’ means that they have the capacity to influence their own and others’ lives. An example of how

children’s agency can be acknowledged is apparent in Alison Clark and Peter Moss’s ‘Mosaic approach’, where the children to lead researchers on tours and place mapped, where

children drew places they knew as they saw it. Allowing the children to be experts in their

environments enabled researchers to find out what the children considered to be the

priorities in their everyday settings. Children and young people do not just receive adult care and instruction but rather their actions, thoughts and feelings influence their lives and those around them and this was evident in early 2019, when school-aged children and young

people across the UK went on strike to protest about lack of global political action on climate change. As suggested by Piaget children aged 11-16 can use their skill of deduction, which is important for making long term decisions affecting them.

References

Donaldson, M. (1978) ‘Cognitive development in adolescents’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 306.

Erikson, E. (1968) ‘Social development in adolescents’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and

Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 312.

Foster et al., (2008) ‘Cognitive development in adolescents’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and

Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 306.

Gibbs, J. (2013) ‘Development of moral reasoning’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 307.

Gilligan, C. (1977) ‘Development of moral reasoning’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 311.

Jorgensen, G. (2006) ‘Development of moral reasoning’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and

Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 311.

Kohlberg, L. (1981) ‘Development of moral reasoning’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and

Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 307.

Piaget, J. (1929) Cognitive development in adolescents’, in Farrington-Flint, L. and

Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 303.

Toga, A.W. and Thompson, P.M (2003) ‘Cognitive development in adolescents’, in Farrington- Flint, L. and Montgomery, H. (third edition.) An introduction to childhood studies and child psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University, p. 306.

Part 3: Reflection

Identify and explain one significant development, in terms of your academic skills, that has arisen from engagement with E102. (206 words)

I have found studying E102 has enabled me to develop my academic writing skills. This is something I have struggled with across the Education Studies degree. I often find that given the number of available resources, I find it difficult to sort and organise what information is necessary. Using an essay plan has really helped me sort out what information is relevant to the question that is being asked and structure my essays. Week 18 was the most useful week for me, as it provided me with essential information for writing and structuring academic essay writing and has helped me plan and organise my points more clearly.

One skill I still think I need improvement on is including argument into my academic writing and using my critical thinking to analyse and evaluate claims. I think in this area I lack the confidence in my ability to successfully include arguments into my writing. This skill will help me actively seek all sides of an argument and build on claims with relevant theories to give better reasoned arguments. The Open University’s Thinking Critically: Skills for OU Study resource has helped me understand how important critical thinking skills are to my reading, academic writing and when working with others.

Identify and explain two significant ways that your thinking about children or childhood has been influenced by your studies on E102. As this part of the reflection asks you to draw on E102 content and concepts, where you do so, you should reference these. (207 words)

In week 29, we were asked to list four ways in which what you we have learned on E102 has influenced the way you think about or work with children. This question allowed to me

understand children’s lives on a deeper scale and consider how social, cultural and religious ideologies impact their lives. Many of the situation’s children face during childhood is out of their control and this module has allowed me to develop thoughts and ideas of ways in

which I can support the children I currently work with.

When introduced to a situation, I now have a more open mind and try not to pre-judge. I have learned that it is important to give children the opportunity to express themselves

freely and to know that they have a voice and opinion that matters, no matter how small.

With the children I currently work with, I have found that the often shy away from sharing their thoughts or idea because they may feel embarrassed or may have never had anyone to speak to. By opening myself up to these children and offering an ear to express themselves, I have found out valuable information about these children that has helped me support them better with their learning.

Total word count: 2600